Stoicism

1. Stoicism

Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3^rd century BC.

It is a philosophy of personal Eudaimonic virtue Ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asserting that the practice of virtue is both necessary and sufficient to achieve Eudaimonia—flourishing by means of living an ethical life.

The Stoics identified the path to Eudaimonia with a life spent practicing the cardinal virtues and living in accordance with Nature.

The Stoics are especially known for teaching that virtue is the only good for human beings,

and those external things—such as health, wealth, and pleasure—are neither good nor bad in themselves (adiaphora) but have value as material for virtue to act upon.

The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a Will (called prohairesis) that is in accordance with nature.

Because of this, the Stoics thought the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not what a person said but how a person behaved.

To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they thought everything was rooted in nature.

Many Stoics—such as Seneca and Epictetus—emphasized that because virtue is sufficient for happiness, a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune.

This belief is similar to the meaning of the phrase stoic calm, though the phrase does not include the traditional Stoic view that only a Sage can be considered truly free and that all moral corruptions are equally vicious.

Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3^rd century AD, and among its adherents was Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

It experienced a decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4^th century AD.

Since then, it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance (Neo-Stoicism) and in the contemporary era (modern Stoicism).

2. Origins

Stoicism was originally known as Zenonism, after the founder Zeno of Citium.

However, this name was soon dropped, likely because the Stoics did not consider their founders to be perfectly wise and to avoid the risk of the philosophy becoming a cult of personality.

The name Stoicism derives from the Stoa Poikile (ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or Painted Porch,

a colonnade decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes on the north side of the Agora in Athens where Zeno and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas.

Sometimes Stoicism is therefore referred to as The Stoa, or the philosophy of The Porch.

In Modern usage the word Stoic commonly refers to someone who is indifferent to pain, pleasure, grief, or joy.

The modern usage as a person who represses feelings or endures patiently was first cited in 1579 as a noun and in 1596 as an adjective.

3. Basic Teachings

The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, constructed from ideals of logic, monistic physics, and naturalistic Ethics.

Of these, they emphasized Ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers.

Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions;

the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the Universal Reason (logos).

Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the individual's ethical and moral well-being:

This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships:

to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy, and to accept even slaves as equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature.

The Stoic Ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes once opined that:

A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus,

sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy, thus positing a completely autonomous individual will and at the same time a universe that is a rigidly deterministic single whole.

4. History

Beginning around 301 BC, Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile (Painted Porch), from which his philosophy got its name.

Unlike the other schools of philosophy, Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space, which was a colonnade overlooking the central gathering place of Athens, the Agora.

Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates.

Zeno's most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for moulding what is now called Stoicism.

Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the Universe over which one has no direct control.

Scholars usually divide the history of Stoicism into 3 phases:

No complete works survived from the first 2 phases of Stoicism.

Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survived.

Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire to the point where nearly all the successors of Alexander ... professed themselves Stoics.

5. Logic

Propositional logic

Diodorus Cronus, who was one of Zeno's teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic,

which is based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, differing greatly from Aristotle's term logic.

Later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic Logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic.

New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20^th century, when important developments in logic were based on Propositional Logic.

It has been said that the many close similarities between Chrysippus's philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking.

Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic Logic today concerns itself with.

Categories

The Stoics held that all beings (ὄντα)—though not all things (τινά)—are material.

Besides the existing beings they admitted 4 incorporeals (asomata):

They were held to be just 'subsisting' while such a status was denied to universals.

Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras's idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object.

But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents.

Thus, if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object.

They held that there were 4 categories.

Stoics outlined that we have control over categories of our own action, thoughts and reaction.

The opening paragraph of the Enchiridion states the categories as:

These suggest a space that is within our own control.

Epistemology

The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason.

Truth can be distinguished from fallacy—even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made.

According to the Stoics, the senses constantly receive sensations:

pulsations that pass from objects through the senses to the mind, where they leave an impression in the imagination (phantasiai) (an impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma).

The Mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, sinkatathesis)—approve or reject—an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false.

Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be labelled belief or opinion (doxa).

It is only through Reason that we gain clear comprehension and conviction (Katalepsis).

Certain and true knowledge (episteme), achievable by the Stoic Sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind.

6. Physics

According to the Stoics, the Universe is a material reasoning substance (logos), known as God or Nature, which was divided into 2 classes: the active and the passive.

The passive substance is matter, which lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion.

The active substance, which can be called Fate or Universal Reason (logos), is an intelligent Ether or primordial Fire, which acts on the passive matter:

Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter it governs.

The souls of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate:

Individual Souls are perishable by nature, and can be transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the seminal reason (logos spermatikos) of the Universe.

Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe, it follows that the goal of life is to live according to Reason, that is, to live a life according to Nature.

Stoic theology is a fatalistic and naturalistic pantheism:

God is never fully transcendent but always immanent, and identified with Nature.

Abrahamic religions personalize God as a world-creating entity, but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe;

according to Stoic cosmology, which is very similar to the Hindu conception of existence, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic.

Similarly, the space and Universe have neither start nor end, rather they are cyclical.

The current Universe is a phase in the present cycle, preceded by an infinite number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed and re-created again, and to be followed by another infinite number of Universes.

Stoicism considers all existence as cyclical, the cosmos as eternally self-creating and self-destroying.

Stoicism, just like Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, does not posit a beginning or end to the Universe.

According to the Stoics, the Logos was the active reason or anima mundi pervading and animating the entire Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature.

The Stoics also referred to the Seminal Reason (logos spermatikos), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter.

Humans, too, each possess a portion of the Divine Logos, which is the primordial Fire and Reason that controls and sustains the Universe.

The first philosophers to explicitly describe nominalist arguments were the Stoics, especially Chrysippus.

7. Ethics

Ancient Stoics are often misunderstood because the terms they used pertained to different concepts than today.

The word Stoic has since come to mean unemotional or indifferent to pain because Stoic Ethics taught freedom from passion by following reason.

The Stoics did not seek to extinguish emotions; rather, they sought to transform them by a resolute askēsis” that enables a person to develop clear judgment and inner calm.

Logic, reflection, and focus were the methods of such self-discipline; temperance is split into self-control, discipline, and modesty.

Borrowing from the Cynics, the foundation of Stoic Ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself; in wisdom and self-control.

Stoic Ethics stressed the rule: Follow where reason leads.

One must therefore strive to be free of the passions, bearing in mind that the ancient meaning of pathos (plural pathē) translated here as passion was anguish or suffering, that is, passively reacting to external events, which is somewhat different from the modern use of the word.

Terms used in Stoicism related to pathos include propathos or instinctive reaction (e.g., turning pale and trembling when confronted by physical danger) and eupathos, which is the mark of the Stoic Sage (Sophos).

The Eupatheia are feelings that result from the correct judgment in the same way that passions result from incorrect judgment.

The idea was to be free of suffering through Apatheia (ἀπάθεια; without passion) or peace of mind,

where peace of mind was understood in the ancient sense—being objective or having clear judgment and the maintenance of equanimity in the face of life's highs and lows.

For the Stoics, Reason meant using logic and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal reason, inherent in all things.

According to reason and virtue, living according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, in recognition of the common reason and essential value of all people.

The 4 cardinal virtues (Arete) of Stoic philosophy is a classification derived from the teachings of Plato (Republic IV. 426–35):

Following Socrates, the Stoics held that unhappiness and evil are the results of human ignorance of the reason in nature.

If someone is unkind, it is because they are unaware of their own Universal Reason, which leads to the conclusion of unkindness.

The solution to evil and unhappiness then is the practice of Stoic philosophy:

To examine one's own judgments and behaviour and determine where they diverge from the universal reason of nature.

The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might prevent them from living a virtuous life.

Plutarch held that accepting life under tyranny would have compromised Cato's self-consistency (constantia) as a Stoic and impaired his freedom to make the honourable moral choices.

Suicide could be justified if one fell victim to severe pain or disease, but otherwise suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one's social duty.

The doctrine of things indifferent

In philosophical terms, things that are indifferent are outside the application of moral law—that is without tendency to either promote or obstruct moral ends.

Actions neither required nor forbidden by the Moral Law, or that do not affect morality, are called Morally Indifferent.

The doctrine of things indifferent (ἀδιάφορα, adiaphora) arose in the Stoic school as a corollary of its diametric opposition of virtue and vice (καθήκοντα kathekonta, convenient actions, or actions in accordance with nature; and ἁμαρτήματα hamartemata, mistakes).

As a result of this dichotomy, a large class of objects were left unassigned and thus regarded as indifferent.

Eventually 3 sub-classes of things indifferent developed:

Spiritual exercise

Philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims; it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or askēsis).

Stoic philosophical and spiritual practices included logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue, contemplation of death, mortality salience,

training attention to remain in the present moment (similar to mindfulness and some forms of Buddhist meditation), and daily reflection on everyday problems and possible solutions e.g. with journaling.

Philosophy for a Stoic is an active process of constant practice and self-reminder.

In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius defines several such practices. For example, in Book II:

Prior to Aurelius, Epictetus in his Discourses, distinguished between 3 types of act: judgment, desire, and inclination.

According to philosopher Pierre Hadot, Epictetus identifies these 3 acts with logic, physics and Ethics respectively.

Hadot writes that in the Meditations,

Stoics were also known for consolatory orations, which were part of the consolatio literary tradition. 3 such consolations by Seneca have survived.

Stoics commonly employ 'The View from Above', reflecting on society and otherness in guided visualization, aiming to gain a bigger picture, to see ourselves in context relevant to others, to see others in the context of the world, to see ourselves in the context of the world to help determine our role and the importance of happenings.

Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, in Book 7 it is stated;

Love and sexuality

Stoics considered sexuality an element within the law of nature that was not to be good or bad by itself, but condemned passionate desire as something to be avoided.

Later Stoic positions generally advanced towards equating sexuality with passion, and although they were still not hostile to sexual relationships by themselves, they nonetheless believed those should be limited in order to retain self-control.

Musonius Rufus espoused the only natural kind of sex was that meant for procreation, defending a companionate form of marriage between man and woman, and considered relationships solely undergone for pleasure or affection as unnatural.

This view was ultimately influential in other currents of thought.

8. Social philosophy

A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its Cosmopolitanism;

According to the Stoics, all people are manifestations of the One Universal Spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another.

In the Discourses, Epictetus comments on man's relationship with the world:

This sentiment echoes that of Diogenes the Cynic, who said,

They held that external differences, such as rank and wealth, are of no importance in social relationships. Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings.

Stoicism became the most influential school of the Greco-Roman world, and produced a number of remarkable writers and personalities, such as Cato the Younger and Epictetus.

In particular, they were noted for their urging of clemency toward slaves.

Seneca in his Letter 47 exhorted,